C Programming Code Examples

#include is a way of including a standard or user-defined file in the program and is mostly written at the beginning of any C/C++ program. This directive is read by the preprocessor and orders it to insert the content of a user-defined or system header file into the following program. These files are mainly imported from an outside source into the current program. The process of importing such files that might be system-defined or user-defined is known as File Inclusion. This type of preprocessor directive tells the compiler to include a file in the source code program. Here are the two types of file that can be included using #include: • Header File or Standard files: This is a file which contains C/C++ function declarations and macro definitions to be shared between several source files. Functions like the printf(), scanf(), cout, cin and various other input-output or other standard functions are contained within different header files. So to utilise those functions, the users need to import a few header files which define the required functions. • User-defined files: These files resembles the header files, except for the fact that they are written and defined by the user itself. This saves the user from writing a particular function multiple times. Once a user-defined file is written, it can be imported anywhere in the program using the #include preprocessor. Including using " ": When using the double quotes(" "), the preprocessor access the current directory in which the source "header_file" is located. This type is mainly used to access any header files of the user's program or user-defined files. Including using <>: While importing file using angular brackets(<>), the the preprocessor uses a predetermined directory path to access the file. It is mainly used to access system header files located in the standard system directories.

In C, the "main" function is treated the same as every function, it has a return type (and in some cases accepts inputs via parameters). The only difference is that the main function is "called" by the operating system when the user runs the program. Thus the main function is always the first code executed when a program starts. main() function is a user defined, body of the function is defined by the programmer or we can say main() is programmer/user implemented function, whose prototype is predefined in the compiler. Hence we can say that main() in c programming is user defined as well as predefined because it's prototype is predefined. main() is a system (compiler) declared function whose defined by the user, which is invoked automatically by the operating system when program is being executed. Its first function or entry point of the program from where program start executed, program's execution starts from the main. So main is an important function in c , c++ programming language. is a keyword in C language, void means nothing, whenever we use void as a function return type then that function nothing return. here main() function no return any value. In place of void we can also use int return type of main() function, at that time main() return integer type value. is a name of function which is predefined function in C library. • An operating system always calls the main() function when a programmers or users execute their programming code. • It is responsible for starting and ends of the program. • It is a universally accepted keyword in programming language and cannot change its meaning and name. • A main() function is a user-defined function in C that means we can pass parameters to the main() function according to the requirement of a program. • A main() function is used to invoke the programming code at the run time, not at the compile time of a program. • A main() function is followed by opening and closing parenthesis brackets.

Get string from stream. Reads characters from stream and stores them as a C string into str until (num-1) characters have been read or either a newline or the end-of-file is reached, whichever happens first. A newline character makes fgets stop reading, but it is considered a valid character by the function and included in the string copied to str. A terminating null character is automatically appended after the characters copied to str. Notice that fgets is quite different from gets: not only fgets accepts a stream argument, but also allows to specify the maximum size of str and includes in the string any ending newline character. Pointer to an array of chars where the string read is copied. Maximum number of characters to be copied into str (including the terminating null-character). Pointer to a FILE object that identifies an input stream. stdin can be used as argument to read from the standard input. On success, the function returns str. If the end-of-file is encountered while attempting to read a character, the eof indicator is set (feof). If this happens before any characters could be read, the pointer returned is a null pointer (and the contents of str remain unchanged). If a read error occurs, the error indicator (ferror) is set and a null pointer is also returned (but the contents pointed by str may have changed).

The open() function shall establish the connection between a file and a file descriptor. It shall create an open file description that refers to a file and a file descriptor that refers to that open file description. The file descriptor is used by other I/O functions to refer to that file. The path argument points to a pathname naming the file. The open() function shall return a file descriptor for the named file that is the lowest file descriptor not currently open for that process. The open file description is new, and therefore the file descriptor shall not share it with any other process in the system. The FD_CLOEXEC file descriptor flag associated with the new file descriptor shall be cleared. path to file which you want to use How you like to use The file offset used to mark the current position within the file shall be set to the beginning of the file. The file status flags and file access modes of the open file description shall be set according to the value of oflag. Values for oflag are constructed by a bitwise-inclusive OR of flags from the following list, defined in <fcntl.h>. Applications shall specify exactly one of the first three values (file access modes) below in the value of oflag: Open for reading only. Open for writing only. Open for reading and writing. The result is undefined if this flag is applied to a FIFO. Any combination of the following may be used: If set, the file offset shall be set to the end of the file prior to each write. If the file exists, this flag has no effect except as noted under O_EXCL below. Otherwise, the file shall be created; the user ID of the file shall be set to the effective user ID of the process; the group ID of the file shall be set to the group ID of the file's parent directory or to the effective group ID of the process; and the access permission bits (see <sys/stat.h>) of the file mode shall be set to the value of the third argument taken as type mode_t modified as follows: a bitwise AND is performed on the file-mode bits and the corresponding bits in the complement of the process' file mode creation mask. Thus, all bits in the file mode whose corresponding bit in the file mode creation mask is set are cleared. When bits other than the file permission bits are set, the effect is unspecified. The third argument does not affect whether the file is open for reading, writing, or for both. Implementations shall provide a way to initialize the file's group ID to the group ID of the parent directory. Implementations may, but need not, provide an implementation-defined way to initialize the file's group ID to the effective group ID of the calling process. Write I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete as defined by synchronized I/O data integrity completion. If O_CREAT and O_EXCL are set, open() shall fail if the file exists. The check for the existence of the file and the creation of the file if it does not exist shall be atomic with respect to other threads executing open() naming the same filename in the same directory with O_EXCL and O_CREAT set. If O_EXCL and O_CREAT are set, and path names a symbolic link, open() shall fail and set errno to [EEXIST], regardless of the contents of the symbolic link. If O_EXCL is set and O_CREAT is not set, the result is undefined. If set and path identifies a terminal device, open() shall not cause the terminal device to become the controlling terminal for the process. When opening a FIFO with O_RDONLY or O_WRONLY set: • If O_NONBLOCK is set, an open() for reading-only shall return without delay. An open() for writing-only shall return an error if no process currently has the file open for reading. • If O_NONBLOCK is clear, an open() for reading-only shall block the calling thread until a thread opens the file for writing. An open() for writing-only shall block the calling thread until a thread opens the file for reading. When opening a block special or character special file that supports non-blocking opens: • If O_NONBLOCK is set, the open() function shall return without blocking for the device to be ready or available. Subsequent behavior of the device is device-specific. • If O_NONBLOCK is clear, the open() function shall block the calling thread until the device is ready or available before returning. Otherwise, the behavior of O_NONBLOCK is unspecified. Read I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete at the same level of integrity as specified by the O_DSYNC and O_SYNC flags. If both O_DSYNC and O_RSYNC are set in oflag, all I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete as defined by synchronized I/O data integrity completion. If both O_SYNC and O_RSYNC are set in flags, all I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete as defined by synchronized I/O file integrity completion. Write I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete as defined by synchronized I/O file integrity completion. If the file exists and is a regular file, and the file is successfully opened O_RDWR or O_WRONLY, its length shall be truncated to 0, and the mode and owner shall be unchanged. It shall have no effect on FIFO special files or terminal device files. Its effect on other file types is implementation-defined. The result of using O_TRUNC with O_RDONLY is undefined. If O_CREAT is set and the file did not previously exist, upon successful completion, open() shall mark for update the st_atime, st_ctime, and st_mtime fields of the file and the st_ctime and st_mtime fields of the parent directory. If O_TRUNC is set and the file did previously exist, upon successful completion, open() shall mark for update the st_ctime and st_mtime fields of the file. If both the O_SYNC and O_DSYNC flags are set, the effect is as if only the O_SYNC flag was set. If path refers to a STREAMS file, oflag may be constructed from O_NONBLOCK OR'ed with either O_RDONLY, O_WRONLY, or O_RDWR. Other flag values are not applicable to STREAMS devices and shall have no effect on them. The value O_NONBLOCK affects the operation of STREAMS drivers and certain functions applied to file descriptors associated with STREAMS files. For STREAMS drivers, the implementation of O_NONBLOCK is device-specific. If path names the master side of a pseudo-terminal device, then it is unspecified whether open() locks the slave side so that it cannot be opened. Conforming applications shall call unlockpt() before opening the slave side. The largest value that can be represented correctly in an object of type off_t shall be established as the offset maximum in the open file description. Upon successful completion, the function shall open the file and return a non-negative integer representing the lowest numbered unused file descriptor. Otherwise, -1 shall be returned and errno set to indicate the error. No files shall be created or modified if the function returns -1. The open() function shall fail if: Search permission is denied on a component of the path prefix, or the file exists and the permissions specified by oflag are denied, or the file does not exist and write permission is denied for the parent directory of the file to be created, or O_TRUNC is specified and write permission is denied. O_CREAT and O_EXCL are set, and the named file exists. A signal was caught during open(). The implementation does not support synchronized I/O for this file. The path argument names a STREAMS file and a hangup or error occurred during the open(). The named file is a directory and oflag includes O_WRONLY or O_RDWR. A loop exists in symbolic links encountered during resolution of the path argument. {OPEN_MAX} file descriptors are currently open in the calling process. The length of the path argument exceeds {PATH_MAX} or a pathname component is longer than {NAME_MAX}. The maximum allowable number of files is currently open in the system. O_CREAT is not set and the named file does not exist; or O_CREAT is set and either the path prefix does not exist or the path argument points to an empty string. The path argument names a STREAMS-based file and the system is unable to allocate a STREAM. The directory or file system that would contain the new file cannot be expanded, the file does not exist, and O_CREAT is specified. A component of the path prefix is not a directory. O_NONBLOCK is set, the named file is a FIFO, O_WRONLY is set, and no process has the file open for reading. The named file is a character special or block special file, and the device associated with this special file does not exist. The named file is a regular file and the size of the file cannot be represented correctly in an object of type off_t. The named file resides on a read-only file system and either O_WRONLY, O_RDWR, O_CREAT (if the file does not exist), or O_TRUNC is set in the oflag argument. The open() function may fail if: The path argument names the slave side of a pseudo-terminal device that is locked. The value of the oflag argument is not valid. More than {SYMLOOP_MAX} symbolic links were encountered during resolution of the path argument. As a result of encountering a symbolic link in resolution of the path argument, the length of the substituted pathname string exceeded {PATH_MAX}. The path argument names a STREAMS file and the system is unable to allocate resources. The file is a pure procedure (shared text) file that is being executed and oflag is O_WRONLY or O_RDWR.

The pipe() function shall create a pipe and place two file descriptors, one each into the arguments fildes[0] and fildes[1], that refer to the open file descriptions for the read and write ends of the pipe. Their integer values shall be the two lowest available at the time of the pipe() call. The O_NONBLOCK and FD_CLOEXEC flags shall be clear on both file descriptors. (The fcntl() function can be used to set both these flags.) Data can be written to the file descriptor fildes[1] and read from the file descriptor fildes[0]. A read on the file descriptor fildes[0] shall access data written to the file descriptor fildes[1] on a first-in-first-out basis. It is unspecified whether fildes[0] is also open for writing and whether fildes[1] is also open for reading. The file descriptor A process has the pipe open for reading (correspondingly writing) if it has a file descriptor open that refers to the read end, fildes[0] (write end, fildes[1]). Upon successful completion, pipe() shall mark for update the st_atime, st_ctime, and st_mtime fields of the pipe. Upon successful completion, 0 shall be returned; otherwise, -1 shall be returned and errno set to indicate the error. The pipe() function shall fail if: More than {OPEN_MAX} minus two file descriptors are already in use by this process. The number of simultaneously open files in the system would exceed a system-imposed limit. • Pipe is one-way communication only i.e we can use a pipe such that One process write to the pipe, and the other process reads from the pipe. It opens a pipe, which is an area of main memory that is treated as a "virtual file". • The pipe can be used by the creating process, as well as all its child processes, for reading and writing. One process can write to this "virtual file" or pipe and another related process can read from it. • If a process tries to read before something is written to the pipe, the process is suspended until something is written. • The pipe system call finds the first two available positions in the process's open file table and allocates them for the read and write ends of the pipe.

Get string from stdin. Reads characters from the standard input (stdin) and stores them as a C string into str until a newline character or the end-of-file is reached. The newline character, if found, is not copied into str. A terminating null character is automatically appended after the characters copied to str. Notice that gets is quite different from fgets: not only gets uses stdin as source, but it does not include the ending newline character in the resulting string and does not allow to specify a maximum size for str (which can lead to buffer overflows). The gets() function enables the user to enter some characters followed by the enter key. All the characters entered by the user get stored in a character array. The null character is added to the array to make it a string. The gets() allows the user to enter the space-separated strings. It returns the string entered by the user. Pointer to a block of memory (array of char) where the string read is copied as a C string. On success, the function returns str. If the end-of-file is encountered while attempting to read a character, the eof indicator is set (feof). If this happens before any characters could be read, the pointer returned is a null pointer (and the contents of str remain unchanged). If a read error occurs, the error indicator (ferror) is set and a null pointer is also returned (but the contents pointed by str may have changed).

Writes the C string pointed by format to the standard output (stdout). If format includes format specifiers (subsequences beginning with %), the additional arguments following format are formatted and inserted in the resulting string replacing their respective specifiers. printf format string refers to a control parameter used by a class of functions in the input/output libraries of C programming language. The string is written in a simple template language: characters are usually copied literally into the function's output, but format specifiers, which start with a % character, indicate the location and method to translate a piece of data (such as a number) to characters. "printf" is the name of one of the main C output functions, and stands for "print formatted". printf format strings are complementary to scanf format strings, which provide formatted input (parsing). In both cases these provide simple functionality and fixed format compared to more sophisticated and flexible template engines or parsers, but are sufficient for many purposes. C string that contains the text to be written to stdout. It can optionally contain embedded format specifiers that are replaced by the values specified in subsequent additional arguments and formatted as requested. A format specifier follows this prototype: [see compatibility note below] %[flags][width][.precision][length]specifier Where the specifier character at the end is the most significant component, since it defines the type and the interpretation of its corresponding argument: a conversion format specifier. Signed decimal integer Unsigned decimal integer Unsigned octal Unsigned hexadecimal integer Unsigned hexadecimal integer (uppercase) Decimal floating point, lowercase Decimal floating point, uppercase Scientific notation (mantissa/exponent), lowercase Scientific notation (mantissa/exponent), uppercase Use the shortest representation: %e or %f Use the shortest representation: %E or %F Hexadecimal floating point, lowercase Hexadecimal floating point, uppercase Character String of characters Pointer address Nothing printed. The corresponding argument must be a pointer to a signed int. The number of characters written so far is stored in the pointed location. A % followed by another % character will write a single % to the stream. The format specifier can also contain sub-specifiers: flags, width, .precision and modifiers (in that order), which are optional and follow these specifications: one or more flags that modifies the conversion behavior (optional) Left-justify within the given field width; Right justification is the default (see width sub-specifier). Forces to preceed the result with a plus or minus sign (+ or -) even for positive numbers. By default, only negative numbers are preceded with a - sign. If no sign is going to be written, a blank space is inserted before the value. Used with o, x or X specifiers the value is preceeded with 0, 0x or 0X respectively for values different than zero. Used with a, A, e, E, f, F, g or G it forces the written output to contain a decimal point even if no more digits follow. By default, if no digits follow, no decimal point is written. Left-pads the number with zeroes (0) instead of spaces when padding is specified (see width sub-specifier). an optional * or integer value used to specify minimum width field. Minimum number of characters to be printed. If the value to be printed is shorter than this number, the result is padded with blank spaces. The value is not truncated even if the result is larger. The width is not specified in the format string, but as an additional integer value argument preceding the argument that has to be formatted. an optional field consisting of a . followed by * or integer or nothing to specify the precision. For integer specifiers (d, i, o, u, x, X): precision specifies the minimum number of digits to be written. If the value to be written is shorter than this number, the result is padded with leading zeros. The value is not truncated even if the result is longer. A precision of 0 means that no character is written for the value 0. For a, A, e, E, f and F specifiers: this is the number of digits to be printed after the decimal point (by default, this is 6). For g and G specifiers: This is the maximum number of significant digits to be printed. For s: this is the maximum number of characters to be printed. By default all characters are printed until the ending null character is encountered. If the period is specified without an explicit value for precision, 0 is assumed. The precision is not specified in the format string, but as an additional integer value argument preceding the argument that has to be formatted. an optional length modifier that specifies the size of the argument. Depending on the format string, the function may expect a sequence of additional arguments, each containing a value to be used to replace a format specifier in the format string (or a pointer to a storage location, for n). There should be at least as many of these arguments as the number of values specified in the format specifiers. Additional arguments are ignored by the function. If a writing error occurs, the error indicator (ferror) is set and a negative number is returned. If a multibyte character encoding error occurs while writing wide characters, errno is set to EILSEQ and a negative number is returned.

Closes a file descriptor, fildes. This frees the file descriptor to be returned by future open() calls and other calls that create file descriptors. The fildes argument must represent a hierarchical file system (HFS) file. When the last open file descriptor for a file is closed, the file itself is closed. If the file's link count is 0 at that time, its space is freed and the file becomes inaccessible. When the last open file descriptor for a pipe or FIFO file is closed, any data remaining in the pipe or FIFO file is discarded. close() unlocks (removes) all outstanding record locks that a process has on the associated file. The descriptor of the socket to be closed. Behavior for sockets: close() call shuts down the socket associated with the socket descriptor socket, and frees resources allocated to the socket. If socket refers to an open TCP connection, the connection is closed. If a stream socket is closed when there is input data queued, the TCP connection is reset rather than being cleanly closed. All sockets should be closed before the end of your process. You should issue a shutdown() call before you issue a close() call for a socket. For AF_INET and AF_INET6 stream sockets (SOCK_STREAM) using SO_LINGER socket option, the socket does not immediately end if data is still present when a close is issued. The following structure is used to set or unset this option, and it can be found in sys/socket.h. If the l_onoff switch is nonzero, the system attempts to deliver any unsent messages. If a linger time is specified, the system waits for n seconds before flushing the data and terminating the socket. For AF_UNIX, when closing sockets that were bound, you should also use unlink() to delete the file created at bind() time. Special behavior for XPG4.2: If a STREAMS-based fildes is closed and the calling process was previously registered to receive a SIGPOLL signal for events associated with that STREAM, the calling process will be unregistered for events associated with the STREAM. The last close() for a STREAM causes the STREAM associated with fildes to be dismantled. If O_NONBLOCK is not set and there have been no signals posted for the STREAM, and if there is data on the module's write queue, close() waits for an unspecified time (for each module and driver) for any output to drain before dismantling the STREAM. The time delay can be changed using an I_SETCLTIME ioctl() request. If the O_NONBLOCK flag is set, or if there are any pending signals, close() does not wait for output to drain, and dismantles the STREAM immediately. Note: z/OS® UNIX services do not supply any STREAMS devices or pseudodevices. See open() - Open a file for more information. If fildes refers to the master side of a pseudoterminal, a SIGHUP signal is sent to the process group, if any, for which the slave side of the pseudoterminal is the controlling terminal. If fildes refers to the slave side of a pseudoterminal, a zero-length message will be sent to the master. If fildes refers to a socket, close() causes the socket to be destroyed. If the socket is connection-oriented and the SO_LINGER option is set for the socket and the socket has untransmitted data, then close() will block for up to the current linger interval until all data is transmitted. If successful, close() returns 0. If unsuccessful, close() returns -1 and sets errno to one of the following values: The call did not complete because the specified socket descriptor is currently being used by another thread in the same process. For example, in a multithreaded environment, close() fails and returns EAGAIN when the following sequence of events occurs (1) thread is blocked in a read() or select() call on a given file or socket descriptor and (2) another thread issues a simultaneous close() call for the same descriptor. fildes is not a valid open file descriptor, or the socket parameter is not a valid socket descriptor. The file cannot be closed because it is blocked. close() was interrupted by a signal. The file may or may not be closed. Added for XPG4.2: An I/O error occurred while reading from or writing to the file system. fildes does not exist. The minor number for the file is incorrect.

While loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop allows a part of the code to be executed multiple times depending upon a given boolean condition. It can be viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop is mostly used in the case where the number of iterations is not known in advance. The while loop evaluates the test expression inside the parentheses (). If test expression is true, statements inside the body of while loop are executed. Then, test expression is evaluated again. The process goes on until test expression is evaluated to false. If test expression is false, the loop terminates. • The while loop evaluates the testExpression inside the parentheses (). • If testExpression is true, statements inside the body of while loop are executed. Then, testExpression is evaluated again. • The process goes on until testExpression is evaluated to false. • If testExpression is false, the loop terminates (ends).

Print error message. Interprets the value of errno as an error message, and prints it to stderr (the standard error output stream, usually the console), optionally preceding it with the custom message specified in str. errno is an integral variable whose value describes the error condition or diagnostic information produced by a call to a library function (any function of the C standard library may set a value for errno, even if not explicitly specified in this reference, and even if no error happened), see errno for more info. C string containing a custom message to be printed before the error message itself. If it is a null pointer, no preceding custom message is printed, but the error message is still printed. By convention, the name of the application itself is generally used as parameter. This function does not return any value. The error message produced by perror is platform-depend. If the parameter str is not a null pointer, str is printed followed by a colon (:) and a space. Then, whether str was a null pointer or not, the generated error description is printed followed by a newline character ('\n'). perror should be called right after the error was produced, otherwise it can be overwritten by calls to other functions.

In the C Programming Language, the #define directive allows the definition of macros within your source code. These macro definitions allow constant values to be declared for use throughout your code. Macro definitions are not variables and cannot be changed by your program code like variables. You generally use this syntax when creating constants that represent numbers, strings or expressions. is the name of a particular constant. It can either be defined in smaller case or upper case or both. Most of the developers prefer the constant names to be in the upper case to find the differences. defines the value of the constant. is the value that is assigned to that constant which is defined. The expression should always be enclosed within the brackets if it has any operators. In the C programming language, the preprocessor directive acts an important role within which the #define directive is present that is used to define the constant or the micro substitution. The #define directive can use any of the basic data types present in the C standard. The #define preprocessor directive lets a programmer or a developer define the macros within the source code. This macro definition will allow the constant value that should be declared for the usage. Macro definitions cannot be changed within the program's code as one does with other variables, as macros are not variables. The #define is usually used in syntax that created a constant that is used to represent numbers, strings, or other expressions. The #define directive should not be enclosed with the semicolon(;). It is a common mistake done, and one should always treat this directive as any other header file. Enclosing it with a semicolon will generate an error. The #define creates a macro, which is in association with an identifier or is parameterized identifier along with a token string. After the macro is defined, then the compiler can substitute the token string for each occurrence of the identifier within the source file.

Write formatted data to stream. Writes the C string pointed by format to the stream. If format includes format specifiers (subsequences beginning with %), the additional arguments following format are formatted and inserted in the resulting string replacing their respective specifiers. After the format parameter, the function expects at least as many additional arguments as specified by format. Pointer to a FILE object that identifies an output stream. C string that contains the text to be written to the stream. It can optionally contain embedded format specifiers that are replaced by the values specified in subsequent additional arguments and formatted as requested. A format specifier follows this prototype: %[flags][width][.precision][length]specifier Where the specifier character at the end is the most significant component, since it defines the type and the interpretation of its corresponding argument: a conversion format specifier. Signed decimal integer Unsigned decimal integer Unsigned octal Unsigned hexadecimal integer Unsigned hexadecimal integer (uppercase) Decimal floating point, lowercase Decimal floating point, uppercase Scientific notation (mantissa/exponent), lowercase Scientific notation (mantissa/exponent), uppercase Use the shortest representation: %e or %f Use the shortest representation: %E or %F Hexadecimal floating point, lowercase Hexadecimal floating point, uppercase Character String of characters Pointer address Nothing printed. The corresponding argument must be a pointer to a signed int. The number of characters written so far is stored in the pointed location. A % followed by another % character will write a single % to the stream. The format specifier can also contain sub-specifiers: flags, width, .precision and modifiers (in that order), which are optional and follow these specifications: one or more flags that modifies the conversion behavior (optional) Left-justify within the given field width; Right justification is the default (see width sub-specifier). Forces to preceed the result with a plus or minus sign (+ or -) even for positive numbers. By default, only negative numbers are preceded with a - sign. If no sign is going to be written, a blank space is inserted before the value. Used with o, x or X specifiers the value is preceeded with 0, 0x or 0X respectively for values different than zero. Used with a, A, e, E, f, F, g or G it forces the written output to contain a decimal point even if no more digits follow. By default, if no digits follow, no decimal point is written. Left-pads the number with zeroes (0) instead of spaces when padding is specified (see width sub-specifier). an optional * or integer value used to specify minimum width field. Minimum number of characters to be printed. If the value to be printed is shorter than this number, the result is padded with blank spaces. The value is not truncated even if the result is larger. The width is not specified in the format string, but as an additional integer value argument preceding the argument that has to be formatted. an optional field consisting of a . followed by * or integer or nothing to specify the precision. For integer specifiers (d, i, o, u, x, X): precision specifies the minimum number of digits to be written. If the value to be written is shorter than this number, the result is padded with leading zeros. The value is not truncated even if the result is longer. A precision of 0 means that no character is written for the value 0. For a, A, e, E, f and F specifiers: this is the number of digits to be printed after the decimal point (by default, this is 6). For g and G specifiers: This is the maximum number of significant digits to be printed. For s: this is the maximum number of characters to be printed. By default all characters are printed until the ending null character is encountered. If the period is specified without an explicit value for precision, 0 is assumed. The precision is not specified in the format string, but as an additional integer value argument preceding the argument that has to be formatted. an optional length modifier that specifies the size of the argument. The argument is interpreted as a short int or unsigned short int (only applies to integer specifiers: i, d, o, u, x and X). The argument is interpreted as a long int or unsigned long int for integer specifiers (i, d, o, u, x and X), and as a wide character or wide character string for specifiers c and s. The argument is interpreted as a long double (only applies to floating point specifiers - e, E, f, g and G). Depending on the format string, the function may expect a sequence of additional arguments, each containing a value to be used to replace a format specifier in the format string (or a pointer to a storage location, for n). There should be at least as many of these arguments as the number of values specified in the format specifiers. Additional arguments are ignored by the function. On success, the total number of characters written is returned. If a writing error occurs, the error indicator (ferror) is set and a negative number is returned. If a multibyte character encoding error occurs while writing wide characters, errno is set to EILSEQ and a negative number is returned.

The if-else statement is used to perform two operations for a single condition. The if-else statement is an extension to the if statement using which, we can perform two different operations, i.e., one is for the correctness of that condition, and the other is for the incorrectness of the condition. Here, we must notice that if and else block cannot be executed simiulteneously. Using if-else statement is always preferable since it always invokes an otherwise case with every if condition. If the test expression is evaluated to true, • statements inside the body of if are executed. • statements inside the body of else are skipped from execution. If the test expression is evaluated to false, • statements inside the body of else are executed • statements inside the body of if are skipped from execution.

The for loop is used in the case where we need to execute some part of the code until the given condition is satisfied. The for loop is also called as a per-tested loop. It is better to use for loop if the number of iteration is known in advance. The for-loop statement is a very specialized while loop, which increases the readability of a program. It is frequently used to traverse the data structures like the array and linked list. First initialization happens and the counter variable gets initialized. In the second step the condition is checked, where the counter variable is tested for the given condition, if the condition returns true then the C statements inside the body of for loop gets executed, if the condition returns false then the for loop gets terminated and the control comes out of the loop. After successful execution of statements inside the body of loop, the counter variable is incremented or decremented, depending on the operation (++ or --).

Close file. Closes the file associated with the stream and disassociates it. All internal buffers associated with the stream are disassociated from it and flushed: the content of any unwritten output buffer is written and the content of any unread input buffer is discarded. Even if the call fails, the stream passed as parameter will no longer be associated with the file nor its buffers. Pointer to a FILE object that specifies the stream to be closed. The fclose() function shall cause the stream pointed to by stream to be flushed and the associated file to be closed. Any unwritten buffered data for the stream shall be written to the file; any unread buffered data shall be discarded. Whether or not the call succeeds, the stream shall be disassociated from the file and any buffer set by the setbuf() or setvbuf() function shall be disassociated from the stream. If the associated buffer was automatically allocated, it shall be deallocated. After the call to fclose(), any use of stream results in undefined behavior. If the stream is successfully closed, a zero value is returned. On failure, EOF is returned.

Associate a stream with a file descriptor. The fdopen() function associates an input or output stream with the file that is identified by fildes. The mode variable is a character string specifying the type of access that is requested for the stream. The variable contains one positional parameter that is followed by optional keyword parameters. The file descriptor that you want to associate with a stream. The mode specified when filedes was originally opened. For information, see fopen(), except modes begining with w don't cause truncation of the file. The possible values for the positional parameters are: Create a stream to read a text file. The file pointer is set to the beginning of the file. Create a stream to write to a text file. The file pointer is set to the beginning of the file. Create a stream to write, in append mode, at the end of the text file. The file pointer is set to the end of the file. Create a stream for reading and writing a text file. The file pointer is set to the beginning of the file. Create a stream for reading and writing a text file. The file pointer is set to the beginning of the file. Create a stream for reading or writing, in append mode, at the end of the text file. The file pointer is set to the end of the file. Create a stream to read a binary file. The file pointer is set to the beginning of the file. Create a stream to write to a binary file. The file pointer is set to the beginning of the file. Create a stream to write to a binary file in append mode. The file pointer is set to the end of the file. Create a stream for reading and writing a binary file. The file pointer is set to the beginning of the file. Create a stream for reading and writing a binary file. The file pointer is set to the beginning of the file. Create a stream for reading and writing to a binary file in append mode. The file pointer is set to the end of the file. Use the w, w+, wb, wb+, and w+b modes with care; they can destroy existing files. The specified type must be compatible with the access method you used to open the file. If the file was opened with the O_APPEND flag, the stream mode must be a, a+, ab, a+b, or ab+. To use the fdopen() function you need a file descriptor. To get a descriptor use the POSIX function open(). The O_APPEND flag is a mode for open(). Modes for open() are defined in QSYSINC/H/FCNTL. For further information see the APIs topic in the Information Center. The keyword parameters allowed for fdopen() are the same as those documented in fopen() - Open Files that are for the integrated file system. If fdopen() returns NULL, use close() to close the file. If fdopen() is successful, you must use fclose() to close the stream and file. A file stream for success, or NULL if an error occurs (errno is set). The filedes argument is a file descriptor that was returned by one of accept(), creat(), dup(), dup2(), fcntl(), open(), pipe(), or sopen(). The fdopen() function preserves the offset maximum previously set for the open file description corresponding to filedes. The fdopen() function may fail if: The fildes argument is not a valid file descriptor. The mode argument is not a valid mode. {FOPEN_MAX} streams are currently open in the calling process. {STREAM_MAX} streams are currently open in the calling process. Insufficient space to allocate a buffer.