C Programming Code Examples
C > Linked Lists Code Examples
C Program to Support Infinite Precision Arithmetic & Store a Number as a List of Digits
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
/* C Program to Support Infinite Precision Arithmetic & Store a Number as a List of Digits
This C Program creates a support for infinite precision arithmetic which allows storage of large integers which is beyond the range of the integral limit. C is architecture dependent so primitive data type such as int is not capable of storing large integral values. So we make use of linked list in order to create and store such great integral values. */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <ctype.h>
struct node
{
int number;
struct node *next;
};
int feednumber(struct node **);
void release(struct node **);
void display(struct node *);
int main()
{
struct node *p = NULL;
int pcount = 0, qcount = 0;
printf("Enter number of any length\n");
pcount = feednumber(&p);
printf("Number of integers entered are: %d\n", pcount);
printf("Displaying the number entered:\n");
display(p);
release(&p);
return 0;
}
/*Function to create nodes of numbers*/
int feednumber(struct node **head)
{
char ch, dig;
int count = 0;
struct node *temp, *rear = NULL;
ch = getchar();
while (ch != '\n')
{
dig = atoi(&ch);
temp = (struct node *)malloc(sizeof(struct node));
temp->number = dig;
temp->next = NULL;
count++;
if ((*head) == NULL)
{
*head = temp;
rear = temp;
}
else
{
rear->next = temp;
rear = rear->next;
}
ch = getchar();
}
return count;
}
/*Function to display the list of numbers*/
void display (struct node *head)
{
while (head != NULL)
{
printf("%d", head->number);
head = head->next;
}
printf("\n");
}
/*Function to free the allocated list of numbers*/
void release (struct node **head)
{
struct node *temp = *head;
while ((*head) != NULL)
{
(*head) = (*head)->next;
free(temp);
temp = *head;
}
}
sizeof() Operator in C
The sizeof() operator is commonly used in C. It determines the size of the expression or the data type specified in the number of char-sized storage units. The sizeof() operator contains a single operand which can be either an expression or a data typecast where the cast is data type enclosed within parenthesis. The data type cannot only be primitive data types such as integer or floating data types, but it can also be pointer data types and compound data types such as unions and structs.
Syntax for sizeof() Operator in C
#include <stdio.h>
sizeof (data type)
data type
Where data type is the desired data type including classes, structures, unions and any other user defined data type.
Mainly, programs know the storage size of the primitive data types. Though the storage size of the data type is constant, it varies when implemented in different platforms. For example, we dynamically allocate the array space by using sizeof() operator:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
/* return the size of a variable by sizeof() operator example */
int main( int argc, char* argv[] )
{
printf("sizeof(char) = %d\n", sizeof(char) );
printf("sizeof(short) = %d\n", sizeof(short) );
printf("sizeof(int) = %d\n", sizeof(int) );
printf("sizeof(long) = %d\n", sizeof(long) );
printf("sizeof(long long) = %d\n", sizeof(long long) );
printf("\n");
printf("sizeof(unsigned char) = %d\n", sizeof(unsigned char) );
printf("sizeof(unsigned short) = %d\n", sizeof(unsigned short) );
printf("sizeof(unsigned int) = %d\n", sizeof(unsigned int) );
printf("sizeof(unsigned long) = %d\n", sizeof(unsigned long) );
printf("\n");
printf("sizeof(float) = %d\n", sizeof(float) );
printf("sizeof(double) = %d\n", sizeof(double) );
printf("sizeof(long double) = %d\n", sizeof(long double) );
printf("\n");
int x;
printf("sizeof(x) = %d\n", sizeof(x) );
}
malloc() Function in C
Allocate memory block. Allocates a block of size bytes of memory, returning a pointer to the beginning of the block.
The content of the newly allocated block of memory is not initialized, remaining with indeterminate values.
If size is zero, the return value depends on the particular library implementation (it may or may not be a null pointer), but the returned pointer shall not be dereferenced.
The "malloc" or "memory allocation" method in C is used to dynamically allocate a single large block of memory with the specified size. It returns a pointer of type void which can be cast into a pointer of any form. It doesn't Iniatialize memory at execution time so that it has initializes each block with the default garbage value initially.
Syntax for malloc() Function in C
#include <stdlib.h>
void* malloc (size_t size);
size
Size of the memory block, in bytes. size_t is an unsigned integral type.
On success, function returns a pointer to the memory block allocated by the function. The type of this pointer is always void*, which can be cast to the desired type of data pointer in order to be dereferenceable.
If the function failed to allocate the requested block of memory, a null pointer is returned.
Data races
Only the storage referenced by the returned pointer is modified. No other storage locations are accessed by the call. If the function reuses the same unit of storage released by a deallocation function (such as free or realloc), the functions are synchronized in such a way that the deallocation happens entirely before the next allocation.
Exceptions
No-throw guarantee: this function never throws exceptions.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
/* allocate memory block by malloc() function example */
// Program to calculate the sum of n numbers entered by the user
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main() {
int n, i, *ptr, sum = 0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
ptr = (int*) malloc(n * sizeof(int));
// if memory cannot be allocated
if(ptr == NULL) {
printf("Error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements: ");
for(i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
scanf("%d", ptr + i);
sum += *(ptr + i);
}
printf("Sum = %d", sum);
// deallocating the memory
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
atoi() Function in C
Convert string to integer. Parses the C-string str interpreting its content as an integral number, which is returned as a value of type int. The function first discards as many whitespace characters (as in isspace) as necessary until the first non-whitespace character is found. Then, starting from this character, takes an optional initial plus or minus sign followed by as many base-10 digits as possible, and interprets them as a numerical value.
The string can contain additional characters after those that form the integral number, which are ignored and have no effect on the behavior of this function.
If the first sequence of non-whitespace characters in str is not a valid integral number, or if no such sequence exists because either str is empty or it contains only whitespace characters, no conversion is performed and zero is returned.
Syntax for atoi() Function in C
#include <stdlib.h>
int atoi (const char * str);
str
C-string beginning with the representation of an integral number.
The atoi() function converts a string of characters representing a numeral into a number of int. Similarly, atol() returns a long integer, and in C99, the atoll() function converts a string into an integer of type long long.
The conversion ignores any leading whitespace characters (spaces, tabs, newlines). A leading plus sign is permissible; a minus sign makes the return value negative. Any character that cannot be interpreted as part of an integer, such as a decimal point or exponent sign, has the effect of terminating the numeral input, so that atoi() converts only the partial string to the left of that character. If under these conditions the string still does not appear to represent a numeral, then atoi() returns 0.
On success, the function returns the converted integral number as an int value.
If the converted value would be out of the range of representable values by an int, it causes undefined behavior. See strtol for a more robust cross-platform alternative when this is a possibility.
Data races
The array pointed by str is accessed.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
/* convert string to integer by atoi() function example */
#include <stdio.h>
// Iterative function to implement `atoi()` function in C
long atoi(const char* S)
{
long num = 0;
int i = 0;
// run till the end of the string is reached, or the
// current character is non-numeric
while (S[i] && (S[i] >= '0' && S[i] <= '9'))
{
num = num * 10 + (S[i] - '0');
i++;
}
return num;
}
// Implement `atoi()` function in C
int main(void)
{
char S[] = "12345";
printf("%ld ", atoi(S));
return 0;
}
#include Directive in C
#include is a way of including a standard or user-defined file in the program and is mostly written at the beginning of any C/C++ program. This directive is read by the preprocessor and orders it to insert the content of a user-defined or system header file into the following program. These files are mainly imported from an outside source into the current program. The process of importing such files that might be system-defined or user-defined is known as File Inclusion. This type of preprocessor directive tells the compiler to include a file in the source code program. Here are the two types of file that can be included using #include:
• Header File or Standard files: This is a file which contains C/C++ function declarations and macro definitions to be shared between several source files. Functions like the printf(), scanf(), cout, cin and various other input-output or other standard functions are contained within different header files. So to utilise those functions, the users need to import a few header files which define the required functions.
• User-defined files: These files resembles the header files, except for the fact that they are written and defined by the user itself. This saves the user from writing a particular function multiple times. Once a user-defined file is written, it can be imported anywhere in the program using the #include preprocessor.
Syntax for #include Directive in C
#include "user-defined_file"
#include <header_file>
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
/* #include directive tells the preprocessor to insert the contents of another file into the source code at the point where the #include directive is found. */
// C program to illustrate file inclusion
// <> used to import system header file
#include <stdio.h>
// " " used to import user-defined file
#include "process.h"
// main function
int main()
{
// add function defined in process.h
add(10, 20);
// mult function defined in process.h
multiply(10, 20);
// printf defined in stdio.h
printf("Process completed");
return 0;
}
getchar() Function in C
Get character from stdin. Returns the next character from the standard input (stdin). It is equivalent to calling getc with stdin as argument.
A getchar() function is a non-standard function whose meaning is already defined in the stdin.h header file to accept a single input from the user. In other words, it is the C library function that gets a single character (unsigned char) from the stdin. However, the getchar() function is similar to the getc() function, but there is a small difference between the getchar() and getc() function of the C programming language. A getchar() reads a single character from standard input, while a getc() reads a single character from any input stream.
Syntax for getchar() Function in C
#include <stdio.h>
int getchar ( void );
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
/* gets a single character (unsigned char) from the stdin by getchar() function example */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main()
{
int ch, i = 0;
char str[150];
printf (" Enter the characters from the keyboard (Press Enter button to stop).\n");
// use do while loop to define the condition
do
{
ch = getchar(); // takes character, number, etc from the user
str[i] = ch; // store the ch into str[i]
i++; // increment loop by 1
} while (ch != '\n'); // ch is not equal to '\n'
printf("Entered characters are %s ", str);
return 0;
}
main() Function in C
In C, the "main" function is treated the same as every function, it has a return type (and in some cases accepts inputs via parameters). The only difference is that the main function is "called" by the operating system when the user runs the program. Thus the main function is always the first code executed when a program starts.
main() function is a user defined, body of the function is defined by the programmer or we can say main() is programmer/user implemented function, whose prototype is predefined in the compiler. Hence we can say that main() in c programming is user defined as well as predefined because it's prototype is predefined.
main() is a system (compiler) declared function whose defined by the user, which is invoked automatically by the operating system when program is being executed.
Its first function or entry point of the program from where program start executed, program's execution starts from the main. So main is an important function in c , c++ programming language.
Syntax for main() Function in C
void main()
{
.........
// codes start from here
.........
}
void
is a keyword in C language, void means nothing, whenever we use void as a function return type then that function nothing return. here main() function no return any value.
In place of void we can also use int return type of main() function, at that time main() return integer type value.
main
is a name of function which is predefined function in C library.
• An operating system always calls the main() function when a programmers or users execute their programming code.
• It is responsible for starting and ends of the program.
• It is a universally accepted keyword in programming language and cannot change its meaning and name.
• A main() function is a user-defined function in C that means we can pass parameters to the main() function according to the requirement of a program.
• A main() function is used to invoke the programming code at the run time, not at the compile time of a program.
• A main() function is followed by opening and closing parenthesis brackets.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
/* basic c program by main() function example */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
printf (" It is a main() function ");
int fun2(); // jump to void fun1() function
printf ("\n Finally exit from the main() function. ");
}
void fun1()
{
printf (" It is a second function. ");
printf (" Exit from the void fun1() function. ");
}
int fun2()
{
void fun1(); // jump to the int fun1() function
printf (" It is a third function. ");
printf (" Exit from the int fun2() function. ");
return 0;
}
printf() Function in C
Writes the C string pointed by format to the standard output (stdout). If format includes format specifiers (subsequences beginning with %), the additional arguments following format are formatted and inserted in the resulting string replacing their respective specifiers.
printf format string refers to a control parameter used by a class of functions in the input/output libraries of C programming language. The string is written in a simple template language: characters are usually copied literally into the function's output, but format specifiers, which start with a % character, indicate the location and method to translate a piece of data (such as a number) to characters. "printf" is the name of one of the main C output functions, and stands for "print formatted". printf format strings are complementary to scanf format strings, which provide formatted input (parsing). In both cases these provide simple functionality and fixed format compared to more sophisticated and flexible template engines or parsers, but are sufficient for many purposes.
Syntax for printf() function in C
#include <stdio.h>
int printf ( const char * format, ... );
format
C string that contains the text to be written to stdout.
It can optionally contain embedded format specifiers that are replaced by the values specified in subsequent additional arguments and formatted as requested.
A format specifier follows this prototype: [see compatibility note below]
%[flags][width][.precision][length]specifier
Where the specifier character at the end is the most significant component, since it defines the type and the interpretation of its corresponding argument:
specifier
a conversion format specifier.
d or i
Signed decimal integer
u
Unsigned decimal integer
o
Unsigned octal
x
Unsigned hexadecimal integer
X
Unsigned hexadecimal integer (uppercase)
f
Decimal floating point, lowercase
F
Decimal floating point, uppercase
e
Scientific notation (mantissa/exponent), lowercase
E
Scientific notation (mantissa/exponent), uppercase
g
Use the shortest representation: %e or %f
G
Use the shortest representation: %E or %F
a
Hexadecimal floating point, lowercase
A
Hexadecimal floating point, uppercase
c
Character
s
String of characters
p
Pointer address
n
Nothing printed. The corresponding argument must be a pointer to a signed int. The number of characters written so far is stored in the pointed location.
%
A % followed by another % character will write a single % to the stream.
The format specifier can also contain sub-specifiers: flags, width, .precision and modifiers (in that order), which are optional and follow these specifications:
flags
one or more flags that modifies the conversion behavior (optional)
-
Left-justify within the given field width; Right justification is the default (see width sub-specifier).
+
Forces to preceed the result with a plus or minus sign (+ or -) even for positive numbers. By default, only negative numbers are preceded with a - sign.
(space)
If no sign is going to be written, a blank space is inserted before the value.
#
Used with o, x or X specifiers the value is preceeded with 0, 0x or 0X respectively for values different than zero. Used with a, A, e, E, f, F, g or G it forces the written output to contain a decimal point even if no more digits follow. By default, if no digits follow, no decimal point is written.
0
Left-pads the number with zeroes (0) instead of spaces when padding is specified (see width sub-specifier).
width
an optional * or integer value used to specify minimum width field.
(number)
Minimum number of characters to be printed. If the value to be printed is shorter than this number, the result is padded with blank spaces. The value is not truncated even if the result is larger.
*
The width is not specified in the format string, but as an additional integer value argument preceding the argument that has to be formatted.
.precision
an optional field consisting of a . followed by * or integer or nothing to specify the precision.
.number
For integer specifiers (d, i, o, u, x, X): precision specifies the minimum number of digits to be written. If the value to be written is shorter than this number, the result is padded with leading zeros. The value is not truncated even if the result is longer. A precision of 0 means that no character is written for the value 0.
For a, A, e, E, f and F specifiers: this is the number of digits to be printed after the decimal point (by default, this is 6).
For g and G specifiers: This is the maximum number of significant digits to be printed.
For s: this is the maximum number of characters to be printed. By default all characters are printed until the ending null character is encountered.
If the period is specified without an explicit value for precision, 0 is assumed.
.*
The precision is not specified in the format string, but as an additional integer value argument preceding the argument that has to be formatted.
length
an optional length modifier that specifies the size of the argument.
... (additional arguments)
Depending on the format string, the function may expect a sequence of additional arguments, each containing a value to be used to replace a format specifier in the format string (or a pointer to a storage location, for n).
There should be at least as many of these arguments as the number of values specified in the format specifiers. Additional arguments are ignored by the function.
If a writing error occurs, the error indicator (ferror) is set and a negative number is returned.
If a multibyte character encoding error occurs while writing wide characters, errno is set to EILSEQ and a negative number is returned.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
/* print formatted data to stdout by printf() function example */
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ch;
char str[100];
int a;
float b;
printf("Enter any character \n");
scanf("%c", &ch);
printf("Entered character is %c \n", ch);
printf("Enter any string ( upto 100 character ) \n");
scanf("%s", &str);
printf("Entered string is %s \n", str);
printf("Enter integer and then a float: ");
// Taking multiple inputs
scanf("%d%f", &a, &b);
printf("You entered %d and %f", a, b);
return 0;
}
free() Function in C
The free() function in C library allows you to release or deallocate the memory blocks which are previously allocated by calloc(), malloc() or realloc() functions. It frees up the memory blocks and returns the memory to heap. It helps freeing the memory in your program which will be available for later use.
In C, the memory for variables is automatically deallocated at compile time. For dynamic memory allocation in C, you have to deallocate the memory explicitly. If not done, you may encounter out of memory error.
Syntax for free() Function in C
#include<stdlib.h>
void free(void *ptr).
ptr
This is the pointer to a memory block previously allocated with malloc, calloc or realloc to be deallocated. If a null pointer is passed as argument, no action occurs.
This function does not return any value.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
/* deallocate memory block by free() function example */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
int main () {
char *str;
/* Initial memory allocation */
str = (char *) malloc(15);
strcpy(str, "HappyCodings");
printf("String = %s, Address = %u\n", str, str);
/* Reallocating memory */
str = (char *) realloc(str, 25);
strcat(str, ".com");
printf("String = %s, Address = %u\n", str, str);
/* Deallocate allocated memory */
free(str);
return(0);
}
If Else Statement in C
The if-else statement is used to perform two operations for a single condition. The if-else statement is an extension to the if statement using which, we can perform two different operations, i.e., one is for the correctness of that condition, and the other is for the incorrectness of the condition. Here, we must notice that if and else block cannot be executed simiulteneously. Using if-else statement is always preferable since it always invokes an otherwise case with every if condition.
Syntax for if-else Statement in C
if (test expression) {
// run code if test expression is true
}
else {
// run code if test expression is false
}
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
/* if else statement in C language */
// Check whether an integer is odd or even
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int number;
printf("Enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d", &number);
// True if the remainder is 0
if (number%2 == 0) {
printf("%d is an even integer.",number);
}
else {
printf("%d is an odd integer.",number);
}
return 0;
}
While Loop Statement in C
While loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop allows a part of the code to be executed multiple times depending upon a given boolean condition. It can be viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop is mostly used in the case where the number of iterations is not known in advance.
The while loop evaluates the test expression inside the parentheses (). If test expression is true, statements inside the body of while loop are executed. Then, test expression is evaluated again. The process goes on until test expression is evaluated to false. If test expression is false, the loop terminates.
Syntax of While Loop Statement in C
while (testExpression) {
// the body of the loop
}
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
/* while loop statement in C language */
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, num, sum = 0, remainder;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
num = n;
// keep looping while n > 0
while( n > 0 )
{
remainder = n % 10; // get the last digit of n
sum += remainder; // add the remainder to the sum
n /= 10; // remove the last digit from n
}
printf("Sum of digits of %d is %d", num, sum);
// signal to operating system everything works fine
return 0;
}
Get current Display Mode. Character with chosen attribute. Scroll the window up. Scroll the window down. Read the character & it's attribute. Positioning the Cursor. Selecting...
C Language program Find the Length of the linked list without using recursion. Program, using iteration, counts the number of nodes in a Linked List. A linked list is an ordered set
C Define the union named number with two variables j1 and j2. Define the union variable x. Take the value of two variables using dot operator(i.e. x.j1, x.j2) as input. Print values
